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END statements) uses the variable within a SQL statement that updates a column of a table The second example in the figure creates a procedure called INC_SAL, stored within the data dictionary It takes a numeric argument called INCREASE and uses this in a SQL UPDATE statement Then the procedure is invoked with the EXECUTE command, passing in a value for the argument These examples are very simple, but they should illustrate how anonymous PL/SQL runs just once and therefore must be compiled at execution time, whereas stored PL/SQL can be compiled in advance and then executed many times

There are six commonly used types of PL/SQL objects: Procedure, Function, Package, Package body, Trigger, and Type body All are schema objects stored within the data dictionary Procedures and functions are subprograms usually intended for performing repetitive instructions Packages are collections of procedures and functions, grouped together for manageability Triggers cannot be packaged: they are associated with tables and run whenever an appropriate DML statement is executed against the tables Object types are beyond the scope of the OCP examinations TIP SQL*Plus and Database Control are only suitable for small-scale PL/SQL development For real work, your programmers will need a proper IDE (integrated development environment) tool that will assist with syntax checking, debugging, and source code management

Figure 2-12

A procedure is a block of code that carries out some action It can, optionally, be defined with a number of arguments These arguments are replaced with the actual parameters given when the procedure is invoked The arguments can be IN arguments,

meaning that they are used to pass data into the procedure, or OUT arguments, meaning that they are modified by the procedure and after execution the new values are passed out of the procedure Arguments can also be IN-OUT, where the one variable serves both purposes Within a procedure, you can define any number of variables that, unlike the arguments, are private to the procedure To run a procedure, either call it from within a PL/SQL block or use the interactive EXECUTE command A function is similar in concept to a procedure, but it does not have OUT arguments and cannot be invoked with EXECUTE It returns a single value, with the RETURN statement Anything that a function can do, a procedure could do also Functions are generally used for relatively simple operations: small code blocks that will be used many times Procedures are more commonly used to divide code into modules, and may contain long and complex processes

To group related procedures and functions together, your programmers create packages A package consists of two objects: a specification and a body A package specification lists the functions and procedures in the package, with their call specifications: the arguments and their data types It can also define variables and constants accessible to all the procedures and functions in the package The package body contains the PL/SQL code that implements the package: the code that creates the procedures and functions To create a package specification, use the CREATE PACKAGE command For example,

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SQL> create or replace package numbers 2 as 3 function odd_even(v1 number) return varchar2; 4 procedure ins_ints(v1 in number); 5 end numbers; 6 / Package created

Then to create the package body, use the CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY statement to create the individual functions and procedures There are several hundred PL/SQL packages provided as standard with the Oracle database These supplied packages are, for the most part, created when you create a database To invoke a packaged procedure, you must prefix the procedure name with the package name For example,

SQL> exec numbersodd_even(5);

Figure 2-13

This will run the ODD_EVEN procedure in the NUMBERS package The package must exist in the schema to which the user is connected, or it would be necessary to prefix the package name with the schema name The user would also need to have the EXECUTE privilege on the package

Database triggers are a special category of PL/SQL object, in that they cannot be invoked manually A trigger runs (or fires ) automatically, when a particular action is carried